writers.com tips:

Punctuation Pointers

ampersand
colon
exclamation mark
question mark
quotation marks
virgule
Punctuating Compound Sentences
Underlining and Italics
When Punctuation Marks Collide

&

 ampersand

The ampersand is a seductive little symbol. It sits, innocently portrayed in some utilitarian style, atop Shift-7 on your keyboard. But take a look at that baby in an italic serif font like Caslon, Garamond or Baskerville, better yet try a calligraphic font like Vivaldi or Papyrus, or one of the Minion Italics -- you'll definitely want to keystroke it into your text.

Stop. Be strong. Never use an ampersand in dialogue. (Can you pronounce "&"?) Most (but not all) publications allow the symbol to be used in the corporate names that use it officially. (Barnes & Noble) The CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE is generally against using ampersands in formal text, corporate names included. CMS considers the ampersand as an abbreviation and most abbreviations should be spelled out in text matter. (Barnes and Noble). They make exceptions for expressions like "R&D" and "R&R" and names of corporations that are generally abbreviated (AT&T).

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/

 virgule

Although the virgule (/)-- also called slash, forward slash, diagonal, solidus, slant, bar, shilling -- is very handy for a number of things. But when it comes to fiction or formal writing, don't use it to stand in for omitted words or letters

Although "12 gallons per week" can be "12 gallons/week" on a chart, order form, etc., you should write it out ("12 gallons per week") in a story or business letter. It is "price in earnings ratio", not "price/earnings ratio"; "his or her" not "his/her"; "without" not "w/o""in care of" not "c/o."

The virgule CAN be properly used in the place of "and" in some compound terms: "the January/February issue," "the auditorium/lecture hall," "the New York/New Jersey Harbor Estuary Program," etc. It can also be used to separate elements of dates (2/14/02) and the numerator and the denominator in fractions (1/3). A virgule separates lines of poetry that are quoted in run-on fashion in the text: "Tyger! Tyger! burning bright,/In the forests of the night,/What immortal hand or eye/Could frame thy fearful symmetry?" (But avoid this with more than four lines.)

It can be used between "and" and "or" ("and/or") to suggest that they are alternatives, but when suggesting that other terms be considered alternatives ("bigger/smaller") use "or".

Of course, the virgule is found URLs: http://www.writers.com.

When using the virgule, don't separate it from adjacent words or numbers with spaces.

In Latin "virgula", meaning "little rod" or, vividly enough, "little penis," was the name of a punctuation character shaped like a small slash and used in the Latin writing system much like a modern comma.

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?

question mark

Use a question mark at the end of a direct question. -- Where are you going?

Simple enough, but there are other instances where the question mark can be used other than when posing a direct query. It can be used to turn a statement into a query:
-- You don't really mean that?

It can be used for a statement that ends in a word inflected as a query:
-- So you're from Montreal, eh?

It can be used for a sentence that consists of a direct question contained within a statement:
-- I was beginning to wonder, was it worth it?

Do not put a question mark at the end of an indirect question:
-- He asked if we'd seen the film yet.

Rhetorical questions -- for which an answer is not really expected or for which the answer is self-evident -- may end with a question mark:
-- How else should we end them, after all? But in some contexts an exclamation point is more appropriate:
-- How can I ever thank you enough!

Sometimes a question will actually end with a series of brief questions. Each of the short questions -- especially if they are more or less follow-up questions to the main question -- can begin with a lowercase letter and end with a question mark:
-- Who is responsible for this? the editor? the writer? the proofreader?

Even though you see it in informal use, don't a question mark in combination with an exclamation point:
-- She said what!?

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:

 colon

* Use a colon to indicate that a series of words, phrases, or clauses follows a complete sentence.

EX: Our family always has certain foods for Thanksgiving dinner: turkey with stuffing, mashed potatoes, gravy, sweet potatoes, green beans, Brussels sprouts

* Use a colon to indicate that a second complete sentence explains a closely related preceding sentence.

EX: Family holiday customs can be sensitive issues: many families avoid friction by accommodating as many traditions as possible.

* A colon may be used to emphasize name or description following a complete sentence.

EX: Aunt Fanny was so preoccupied with her complaints about Aunt May's pumpkin pie that she didn't notice who was standing right behind her: a livid Aunt May. * Use a colon to introduce a long quotation after a complete sentence.

EX: Edward Winslow wrote all that is known for certain about the feast in 1621:
"Our harvest being gotten in, our governor sent four men on fowling, that so we might after a special manner rejoice together after we had gathered the fruit of our labors. They four in one day killed as much fowl as, with a little help beside, served the company almost a week. At which time, among other recreations, we exercised our arms, many of the Indians coming amongst us, and among the rest their greatest king Massasoit, with some ninety men, whom for three days we entertained and feasted, and they went out and killed five deer, which they brought to the plantation and bestowed upon our governor, and upon the captain, and others. And although it be not always so plentiful as it was at this time with us, yet by the goodness of God, we are so far from want that we often wish you partakers of our plenty."

* Colons are also used --

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!

 exclamation point

Someone once said, "Writers are allowed three exclamation points...in their entire lives." That may bit a bit strict, but it is true that exclamation points are no substitute for well chosen, powerful words. Those words will set the scene and evoke the emotional response you want. If all you can think of to explain high emotion is an exclamation point, then you need to rethink your prose. In fiction you may want to occasionally use an exclamation point as a visual scream or to reinforce sense of urgency or very strong emotion by ending your imperative sentences and statements with them:

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“ ”

 quotation marks

In American style commas and periods at the end of a quotation always go inside the quotation marks, whether or not they're part of the quotation. Colons and semicolons always go outside quotation marks. Question marks, exclamation points, and dashes go inside the quotation marks if they are part of the quotation. They go outside the quotation marks if they are not part of the quotation. Double quotation marks enclose quotations, and single quotation marks enclose quotations within quotations.

British style uses single quotation marks to enclose quotations, and double quotation marks to enclose a quotation within another quotation. Periods and commas are placed inside the quotation marks only when they are part of the quoted material, which is the more logical placement.

Quotations, in either style, come in pairs. One is used at the beginning of a direct quotation, title, word(s) used in a special sense and one at the end.

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Punctuating Compound Sentences

Compound sentences that are not punctuated correctly are called by several names: run-on sentences, comma splices, and fused sentences. Whatever the name, the way to avoid them is to punctuate compound sentences correctly. Try using one of these two rules:

*Join the two independent clauses with one of the coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet), and use a comma before the connecting word.
_________________________, and _________________________.
She enjoys make her own bread, and she usually bakes one a week.

* When you do not have a connecting word (or when you use a connecting word other than and, but, for, or nor, so, or yet between the two independent clauses) use a semicolon (;).
__________________________;_____________________________.
(Ted would watch any two teams play baseball; Terry preferred only National League games.)

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Underlining and Italics

[Underlining and italics are *not* punctuation. They are "significant textual effects used conventionally in a variety of situations." But we didn't want a new section call "Textual Effects," so we thought the "Punctuation Pointers" section would do.]

Before word-processing, writers would underline words, terms, and phrases in their handwritten or typed manuscripts they wished to have italicized. The typesetter would then set the indicated words in italics for publication. Which should you use nowadays on your word-processed manuscript? The publishing world has not decided the issue yet, so choose either one and use it consistently throughout. Academic papers are not considered final publications so many instructors prefer underlining over italics for course papers.

In online communication, use alternatives for underlining or italics. It is now fairly standard to indicate italics like _this_ in ASCII, although capitalizing titles and *asterisks* are also employed. (An alternative interpretation of *asterisk-marking* is that is means boldface.)

Associated Press style does not use italics because they cannot be sent over the wire or in ASCII. Some newspapers still use few, if any italics. Others follow their own specific style. The New York Times, for instance does not italicize foreign words in the news sections, but an exception is made for the The Times magazine and THE NEW YORK TIMES BOOK REVIEW as they reflect "the more literary flavor of a weekly periodical."

In general, italics or underlining should be used in the following situations: These titles should be in roman (not italicized) within quotation marks: Titles only in roman, no quotation marks: Standards of style Words Into Type and The Chicago Manual of Stylesay: Italicize *all* titles of plays (including one-acts)
WIT: Television and radio shows are italicized
CMS: Television and radio episodes are roman with quotes, titles of series are italicized (the "Chuckles the Clown Is Dead" episode of The Mary Tyler Moore Show)

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When Punctuation Marks Collide

As we all know, punctuation marks bring clarity and order to what would otherwise be hard-to-decipher strings of words. Marks do a specific job and they work independently of other marks -- most of the time.

But -- there's always a "but" when it comes to language rules -- there are exceptions.

We don't use two periods in a row. In the example below, an abbreviation ends the sentence. No second period is needed.
** Alexander founded Alexandria in 331 B.C.

The following sentence ends with a properly punctuated quotation. We don't need another ending mark.
** Humphrey Bogart, as Rick in CASABLANCA, never said "Play it again, Sam."

You don't use a period after a sentence-ending quotation if it uses a question mark or an exclamation mark either:
** The wicked queen asked, "Mirror, mirror on the wall, who's the fairest of them all?"
** The fans screamed, "We won!"

Similarly, if a sentence would seem to call for two question marks, use only the first.
** Who posed the musical question "Will you still love me when I'm 64?"

However, you do place a question mark after a period if it is logically required.
** Do I make the check out to Marcus Welby, M.D.?

A comma gives up its position if a colon or a semicolon takes that position in a sentence. In this sentence (below), two commas are needed to set off the nonessential subordinate clause "as the videotape proved":
** Jessica, as the videotape proved, was at the scene of the crime; no other conclusion could be reached.

If you write it this way:
** Jessica was at the scene of the crime, as the videotape proved; no other conclusion could be reached.

-- the phrase "as the videotape proved" is still a nonessential subordinate clause, but the semicolon "outranks" the comma and the comma is dropped.

Another example using a colon:
** Only two restrictions, according the rules, applied to the costume competition: no weapons and no nudity.
** Only two restrictions applied to the costume competition, according the rules: no weapons and no nudity.

The comma is also dropped in favor of a sentence-ending punctuation mark. In the first example, two commas bracket the phrase "all things considered" when it appears mid-sentence.
** It's fair to say, all things considered, the judges did a good job.

When "all things considered" is placed at the beginning of the sentence, the phrase has only a following comma:
** All things considered, it's fair to say the judges did a good job.

And, when "all things considered" comes at the end of a sentence, it has only a preceding comma.
** It's fair to say the judges did a good job, all things considered.

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